Introspective Impressionism: An Analysis of 19th-Century Art as a Reflection of Economic, Political, and Social History

Rebecca Cohen analyzes the impressionist movement of the 19th century and how its development mirrors the economic, political and social climate of France at the time.

Rebecca Cohen

Art and artistic movements have throughout history been a means of expression; depicting certain scenes or thematically altering a moment regularly means something to an artist and, more importantly, the public.

During the 1760 - 1840s, art tended to lean into the  neoclassical era of art. This meant following traditional schemas and styles that mirrored the original techniques of  the old masters, thus making the work  seem timeless and classic.1 However, as  the new age of France began, the stylistic movement changed as well. Artists such  as Manet, Degas, and more incorporated new risks into their art as new risks were taken politically. Instability, civil struggle, and societal change were the motivating political and social factors in the 19th-century impressionist movement, therefore defining a new age in art. 

Historically art has consistently been seen as a response to current events, from the end of the Napoleonic wars, France, although troubled, was mostly stable and that is clearly depicted through the art at the time.2 But as change occurred politically and socially the artists of the time had to respond as well.3

In the years prior to the age of impressionism, it’s important to note that France was brimming with instability due to the back and forth within the governmental body. Following the French revolution and the reign of Napoleon’s empire, France was no longer one of the dominant forces in Europe. As

1 H.W Janson, and Anthony F. Janson, A Basic History of Art Vol. 3 (New York: Harry N. Abrams 1987), 303. 

2 Albert Boime, Art and the French Commune: Imagining Paris after War and Revolution, (Princeton : Princeton University Press 1997, 46 

3 Albert Boime, Art in the Age of Civil Struggle 1848-1871, (Chicago: The University of Chicago

the bourgeoisie lost their standing, the people of France were becoming revolutionary; petitioning for a new France. Following the revolution, a new royalist ideology was taking over France with the appointment of Louis XVIII to the throne. Following his death, his brother Charles X took over the role. However, France was overall dissatisfied with Charles X, so he abdicated the throne in favor of his cousin Louis Phillipe. The history of France highlights  the turbulent government and its effect  on the people, which in its essence later  defined the impressionist movement.4 

Furthermore, after the fall of  Charles X took place, France was in  search of a new leader. Louis Phillipe  seemed like a middle-ground choice  between the Legitimists and Orleanists. As a cousin of Charles X, he favored the  Legitimists, but he too found favor in the  Orleanists as he fought in the revolution, and only became an émigré during the  reign of terror. Thus, he was put into power, and titled king of the French.

However, his reign did not last leading to further instability in France. There was opposition on all sides as he implemented laws that did not benefit the economy and the rise of Bonapartism, favoring the Bonaparte family as leaders, began again.5

With the rise of socialism, the ideology that society should be based on  the spirit of cooperation instead of competition, the pressure on the

Press, 2007, 739 

Richard Shiff, "Art History and the Nineteenth Century: Realism and Resistance." (The Art Bulletin (CAA) 70 (1): 25-48, 1988), 26 

4 4 W. Scott Haine, "The History of France" 93-142,  (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 2000), 95

5 Haine, The History of France, 102, Boime, Art in the Age of Civil Struggle, 9

monarchy increased, resulting in two assassination attempts on the king's life.6 Contextually, in 1845 France was undergoing an extreme economic crisis  following the railroad expansion of the ’30s and ’40s in addition to a poor  harvest.7 The people of France were  growing tired, and something needed to change. With the rise in Bonapartism, the Bonaparte family was kept the head of the empire with Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon the first, being the new face of France as socialism  emerged.8 

In February of 1848, Louis Phillipe abdicated the throne, and Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, otherwise known as Napoleon III, was elected as president  of the second republic.9 At this point, the people of France were hoping they had picked a leader that would lead them out of the economic downfall they were currently in. Instead, Napoleon III  became a menace. In the first year of his reign, the national anthem and the color red were outlawed, cafes were shut down and his presidency was starting to feel  like a dictatorship.10

The 1850 Falloux law was highly supported by Napoleon III, favoring Catholic schools to be run by the clergy. Following the Falloux laws Napoleon cut his electoral body by a third, craving more power and showing his true political colors.11 In 1851, he established  marital law across France and in many  governmental departments. It was at that

6 Haine, The History of France, 104 

7 Christophe Charle, A Social History of France in the 19th Century, (Oxford: Berg Publishing, 1991), 59 

8 Haine, The History of France, 107 

9 Haine, The History of France, 107 

10 Haine, The History of France, 108 

11 Colin Jones, The Cambridge Illustrated History of France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994) 212

point that France realized they had elected the most radical conservative in France's history, who not only craved power, but at no point was willing to give it up.12 In December of 1851, Napoleon staged the coup d'etat to ensure that he  would remain in power far longer than the one term of seven years that was  previously enforced.13

Starting in 1852, Napoleon III was no longer a president, but instead monarch. Under his uneasy monarchy, he achieved some success such as economic growth and development of the  overall economy, later enabling France to host the world fair in 1867.14 But with success, there was also hardship, such as  French involvement in the Mexican civil war, and loss of goods from the United  States during the US Civil War.15 

Most notable of the ’50s and Napoleon III’s reign was his modernization of Paris. Otherwise  known as the Haussmannization of Paris, this was done by Baron Hausmann to modernize Paris and rid the city of its  slums and susceptibility to epidemics. The modernization included extensions to the Louvre, restyling of streets and city layout, and shops along the Seine replacing homes.16 This modernization  was a key feature of Napoleon’s rule because it exhibited how the country was at the time; he promoted change and the  modernization produced a more integrated urban society and economy. However, modernization also aided in

12 Haine, The History of France, 109 

13 Jones, The Cambridge Illustrated History, 212

14 Robert L. Herbert, Impressionism Art, Leisure, and  Parisian Society, (New Haven: Yale University Press,  1988) 4 

15 Jones, The Cambridge Illustrated History, 213

16 Nancy Forgione, "Everyday Life in Motion: The Art  of Walking in Late-Nineteenth-Century Paris, (The  Art Bulletin (CAA) 87 (4): 664-687, 2005) 675

the separation between social classes. The bourgeoisie stayed in the center of Paris while the poorer citizens were pushed out due to high rent and cost of living in the smaller neighborhoods surrounding the city, such as Montmartre.17 

With the constant change in laws and government, the artists of the time were waiting for the right moment to express themselves and their views on  the current state of France. The king was expecting a high art trope similar to the neoclassical style that was popular during his uncle's reign, but what was  depicted was quite the opposite. 

Instead, as argued by Albert  Boime, an American art historian specializing in the impressionist  movement, the art exhibited was explicit  and looked to provoke the nation by

Figure 1 Édouard Manet, Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe, 1863, Oil on canvas, 81.9 in × 104.1 in (208 cm

× 264.5 cm), Musée d'Orsay, Paris

being transitional pieces mirroring the  transition of the monarchy and economy.18 

17 Alisa Luxenberg, "Creating Désastres:Andrieu's Photographs of Urban Ruins in the Paris of 1871.” (The Art Bulletin (CAA) 80 (1): 113-137, 1998) 120 , Jones, The Cambridge Illustrated History, 214

18 Boime, Art and the French Commune, 35

One of the key artists of the movement, Eduard Manet, was a rebellious man and his art was not for the  faint of heart. His painting Luncheon on the Grass, originally titled The Tub, was turned away from the first salon of Napoleon III in 1863. Instead, he still chose to show his work at the Salon of Refusals, an exhibit for artists rejected by the royal salon, which garnered an enormous wave of response, especially  for this work and one other.19 

In Boime’s analysis of Luncheon on the Grass he shows that Manet reworks Pastoral Concert by Giorgione to show two men, current with the newest fashion choices of Paris in a renaissance style pose. The woman next to them is shown to be staring at the viewer, acutely aware that she is erotic in nature and bare, but her stare with the viewer makes her real and present. Nude women have always been constant in art through the ages, but here she proves a point.20  The point she demonstrated is the inconsistency between the second empire's legality and reality was stark.

The men here are trying to maintain appearances, attempting to ignore a nude woman continuing conversation; the nude woman breaks the façade of appearances by gazing out at the viewer, not allowing herself to be ignored. This further suggests that although the appearance of the second empire seemed nice in reality, beyond the surface it was not pleasant. By gazing out at the viewer and connecting with them she almost seems to say she knows not all is good.21 

The style of the painting almost  seems classic and Renaissance in nature,

19 Boime, Art in the Age of Civil Struggle, 676

20 Shiff, “Art History and the Nineteenth Century” ,  45 

21 Boime, Art in the Age of Civil Struggle, 667

mimicking other paintings and poses of  the subject, even incorporating a still life in the bottom left corner.22 In reality, the eroticism of the women shows a different perspective. Because of the combination of the two different stylistic elements (eroticism and classical style), the painting can be classified as a transition piece, mirroring the newest transition of the nation. While the nation transitions  into the most conservative ruler they have ever had, Louis Napoleon, and was losing freedoms that they was accustomed to, Manet shows the viewer that not everything is as it seems.23 The

Figure 2 Édouard Manet, Olympia, 1863–65, Oil on canvas, 51.4  in × 74.8 in (130.5 cm × 190 cm),

Musée d'Orsay, Paris

transitional nature from classic to unsound and precarious not only hints at the future of the art movement, but also shows that the nation is not done changing and nothing will be hidden behind closed doors. 24 

In addition to Luncheon on the Grass, Manet also experimented with other paintings as transitional works. His depiction of Olympia was painted in 1863 but shown in 1865. Olympia is very distinctly based on Titans illustration of 

22 Genevieve Lacrambe, Anne Distel, Claire Frenche Thory, Sylvie Gache-Patin, Edward Lucie-Smith, and Michel Laclotte, Musée d'Orsay Impressionist and Post-Impressionist Masterpeices (London: Thames and HudsonLTD, 1984) 20

a grisette or courtesan, but not in a conventional manner. During this time, artists regularly used courtesans as  subjects for their works, hiring them for their time, albeit not in bed. Olympia differs from an anonymous woman; she is naked, not nude. She is still donning her slippers, gold bracelets, and choker, as she is gazing at the viewer with the nod of a question.25 

Olympia, on the surface appears  as a courtesan ready to please, but in reality she dominates the space. Grande Marque was the highest order a courtesan could receive, which later paid them handsomely. This indicated how Olympia was able to afford her maid service accompanying her in the image holding a bouquet of flowers.26 The flowers come from an unnamed man that has not even seen Olympia; instead, Olympia must choose whether or not to see him based on the floral arrangement he sent for her. Her question to the viewer is, ‘Should I see him?’27

Boime argues that Manet’s Olympia differs from other portraits of the same, stylistically in the past  courtesans, were portrayed delicately. For example, in Titan's portrait Venus of

Figure 3 Titan, Venus of Urbino, 1534, Oil on canvas, 47 x  65 in (119 cm × 165 cm), Uffizi, Florence

23 Haine, The History of France, 108 

24 Shiff, “Art History and the Nineteenth Century”, 28

25 Boime, Art in the Age of Civil Struggle, 691

26 Boime, Art in the Age of Civil Struggle, 696

27 Boime, Art in the Age of Civil Struggle, 692

Urbino, her pose is relaxed and limp, as  she looks at her procurer seductively.28 Although Manet liked to take trend from the old masters, he always took his work in a different direction.29 Through  Olympia's pose, we can tell this was as Boime says, “a modern whore on her own turf in control of the whole situation”30. In addition to that, Manet's incorporation of a Black maidservant further goes to explore the concept of a classist society.

One might assume that because Olympia was a courtesan she was of a lower level of society, but in reality such is not the case. At that point in history, dark-skinned people were used in art to portray the high-class level of the  opposing figure. Olympia barely bats her maidservant an eye as she approaches with the florals, further proving that  Olympia is of a much higher class.31

Olympia served a purpose to Manet; Boime points out that Manet aimed to draw attention to the  problematized social realities of France. By depicting a courtesan of the high class ambiguously, it was a jab at the authoritarian regime of Napoleon III and  the rottenness of society.32 The utter  ridiculousness that a whore could be classist shows how ridiculous the glitz of the regime was.33 In addition to that, Manet's provocation of the public is meant to show, ‘this is what you’ve allowed your society to decline to’, the level of a whore.

It's no secret that Manet was historically correct in the depiction of Olympia and Luncheon on the Grass of

28 TJ Clark, The Painting of Modern Life:Paris in the Art of Manet and His Followers (New York: Alfred A. Knoph, 1984) 93 

29 Lacrambe, et al., Musée d’Orsay, 22 

30 Boime, Art in the Age of Civil Struggle, 695

31 Boime, Art in the Age of Civil Struggle, 697 

modern-day society and politics. His work proved to show that. Although he is staying traditional in his inspiration from the grand masters, he is transitioning into a new age of artistic expression where there are no consequences. Where he could paint what he believed in and what he knew would provoke a crowd. By painting classic scenes in the style of the modern age, he was bringing the problems of the Moderna day to light.34

In the years following the 1865 showing of Olympia, France entered a period of decline. Workers began  striking, banks were in crisis, and France  lost the civil war in Mexico.35 They needed to show strength after their constant stream of downfalls. And to do that Paris hosted the World’s Fair in 1867 which in return brought huge crowds to the artists of the time. They were able to exhibit their works to a new population of  people that did not understand the meanings of their work so explicitly.36 Instead of looking at Luncheon on the Grass and understanding it was illegal to be nude in the Seine, but you could always find an alcove for a quick swim following a picnic, the public saw something else. They saw a stylistic change from the neoclassicism era to the new age of art later to be titled Impressionism following the Franco Prussian war. 37 Impressionism therefore can be defined as art being the “very presence of what the artist was depicting” immersing the viewer into the work.38

Following the exhibition of  strength at the 1867 World’s Fair , France  made some other interesting political

32 Shiff, “Art History and the Nineteenth Century”, 45

33 Boime, Art in the Age of Civil Struggle, 700

34 Boime, Art in the Age of Civil Struggle, 700

35 Charle, A Social History of France, 101-103

36 Herbert, Impressionism, 4 

37 Boime, Art in the Age of Civil Struggle, 678

38 Lacrambe, et al., Musée d’Orsay, 9

decisions. Following the fair, France reinforced their image to the world. Therefore, France invested in the building of the Suez Canal, a risky move for the time, followed by their withdrawal from Mexico.39 Although prior to the withdrawal, France had placed Austrian Maximillian in Mexico to reside as  emperor in order to strengthen the relationship between Austria and France.

This did not occur. With Maximillian’s execution and Frances's withdrawal from Mexico, the withdrawal appeared as a white flag. However, the Prussians did not interpret it as such and were extremely unhappy.40 

Figure 4 Édouard Manet, The Execution of Emperor  Maximilian (1868–1869), 

Oil on canvas, 99 x 120 in (252 ×  305 cm), Kunsthalle Mannheim, Germany

On July 19th, 1870, the Franco-Prussian war began due to Prussia's procural of Mexico following France's withdrawal and the wish to settle a score. Because Napoleon III was unable to modernize the railway system, Prussia had the ability to provoke France knowing she would not be able to fight  back. France soon after declared war

39 Luxenberg, “Creating Desastres”, 128 

40 Haine, The History of France, 113 

41 Haine, The History of France, 113 

42 Jones, The Cambridge Illustrated History, 217 

[already at a disadvantage] against modernized Prussia. From July until August, the French army suffered from defeat after defeat, especially at the Battle of Sedan where France surrendered on  September 2.41

Subsequently, Prussian troops embarked on a four-month siege of Paris starting on September 19th and ending in January of 1871. A treaty was later signed in Versailles with France pledging a debt of 5 billion francs and the land of Alsace Lorraine to Prussia.42 With the end of Napoleon III's reign over, the nation needed to find a new and suitable leader  to guide them out of the debt with Prussia and into a more secure lifestyle. Unfortunately for France, their wish for stability would come a little later following the commune. For now, the artists needed to respond to the Franco Prussian war.

Edgar Degas, a key artist of the Impressionist movement, defines the post-Franco-Prussian war era with his  series on dancers. Degas’s dancers  represented two different issues going on  at the time: prostitution and war. Similar to Olympia who was a high-grade courtesan, ballerinas did not make a  livable wage from their dancing. Many dancers were forced to work as prostitutes and sex workers to make ends  meet during a time when money was tight.43 Many criticized Degas for hanging around these types of women, but in the harsh conditions. Degas found elegance. He enjoyed painting the  dancers and painted over 1500 works on the subject. 44 Edmond de Goncourt of  the Musee de Orsay describes Degas as, “the man who is at the present moment best able to...catch its spirit” in terms of his dancers.45

In addition to his love of the dancers, he was able to manipulate the perspective of the portraits to spread his commentary on the current political situation of war. Dombrowski discusses Degas's stylistic image cropping as meaningful; before Degas’s cropping in Palace de Concorde, he began this stylistic element during the Franco Prussian war. Although it started before the war it began to take real form in the years following the commune. Degas’s dancers were, in their true essence, messengers. The cropping of the ballerinas was meant to represent the “dislocations of war”, as stated by Dombrowski.46 His stylistic croppings gave the ballerinas a disfigured or mutilated form, giving the appearance of missing arms, legs, heads, etc.

Degas was using both his  cropping technique and subjects as a medium to deliver his message. How  ironic is it that he used ballerinas, often  accustomed to sex work, to serve as the survivors of war? France was falling  apart, looking for a leader after the  disaster of a war just lost. What better way to show the true people of Paris than by the ones who could barely make a living with their talents? Degas makes a point here that Napoleon's engagement in the war was a mistake and he hurt the people of Paris for the worse.47

Degas was unafraid to share his  viewpoint on the current political or  social issues of the time. He was always a  starving artist looking to sell his work, 

but he did not care if he was poor, as long

43 John House, Impressionism Paint and Polotics. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004) 116 

44 House, Impressionism, 116

45 Lacrambe, et al., Musée d’Orsay, 38 

46 André Dombrowski, "History, Memory, and  instantaneity in Edgar Degas's "Palace de la  Concorde", (The Art Bulletin (CAA) 93 (2): 195-219,  2011),198

Figure 5, Edgar Degas, L'Orchestre de l'Opéra, 1870, Oil on  canvas, 22 x 17 in

( 56 x 45 cm), Musee d'Orsay, Paris

as he could continue his work in the way he wanted to create them. Hence Degas became one of the most important painters of the Impressionist movement, even though he abhorred the name and  preferred to be called a realist.48 Following the Franco-Prussian war and the siege on Paris, a desperate France held elections for an interim leader, and Louis Adolphe Thiers was elected. It was he who conducted the  peace treaty between France and Prussia  that was signed in Versailles in January  1871. The treaty's goal was to achieve stability in France following the war.

However,Thiers, the newly elected  official, was a radical republican, which  caused some issues and political conflicts within his government.49

47 Dombrowski, “History, Memory and Instantinaity”  , 198 

48 Dombrowski, “History, Memory and Instantinaity”  197 

49 Haine, The History of France, 118

The radical republican viewpoint wanted to subdue the revolutionaries of Paris. Hence, in the morning of March 18th, 1871, Thiers ordered that the national guard take 200 cannons from Montmartre. Montmartre at that time was mostly filled with the people who were kicked out of the main Paris city  during the remodeling done during the reign of Napoleon III’s. 50

The people of Montmartre already disliked the government and felt that this was the Prime minister’s attempt to disarm them. In response, the people of Montmartre disarmed the men sent to  their town, in addition to killing the general sent to oversee the operation. With this, the commune began and lasted  a total of six weeks. In May the army from Versailles marched to put down the commune in what has become known as bloody week: May 21-28th. In the span of  seven days, the army of Versailles killed  10,000 and captured 40,000 communards.51 Among the captured were Manet and Degas, who briefly  brushed death as they were almost executed by the army of Versailles.52

Following the commune, the city of Paris was in wreckage, but the people of France were no longer at each other's throats regarding the nation's political  schema and held elections. 53Theirs was  endorsed as president in August 1871 following his strength in the commune. Once elected, Thiers had excellent public approval ratings due to fast-tracked payments to Prussia and restoring order to the government. Once Thiers job was  complete, he openly endorsed a  conservative republican and resigned to  give a better life to all Frenchman. With

50 Luxenberg, “Creating Desastres” , 120 

51 Haine, The History of France, 119 

52 Boime, Art and the French Commune, 47

53 Luxenberg, “Creating Desastres” , 115

this opportunity, they elected Marshal Edmé Patrice Maurice MacMahon as president. MacMahon was the general who led the army of Versailles against the commune at the end of bloody week, and not willing to repeat their mistakes, the government only placed a small amount  of power in his hands. 54

The government dissolved Thiers original responsibilities into many different heads of government and  offices.55 This resulted in a strong Parliament and prime minister aided by a weak president. The president was given a seven-year term, but his lawmaking power was not restricted, which later proved to be a huge mistake. In 1873 MacMahon placed controls on  alcohol consumption, prohibited the  celebration of Bastille Day, and censored newspapers.56 With the increase in repressive measures, Parliament began to worry they did not want another repeat. 

With MacMahon as president came the birth of the third republic. Finally a time of stability that would last had come. With stability came

Figure 6 Edgar Degas, Palace De Concorde, 1875, Oil on  canvas, 30 x 46 in ( 78.4 x 117.5 cm),

Hermitage Museum,  Saint Petersburg, Russia

54 Haine, The History of France, 120 

55 Haine, The History of France, 120 

56 Haine, The History of France, 121

opportunity and the artists were ready to take it. After so much back and forth, their opinions and commentaries were ready to be heard. Some of the most important artworks during this certain period were the Palace De Concorde, L’  Absinthe, and Paris Street in the Rain. The artwork of this time all contained a central theme of post-commune life. The people of France having been disrupted by war lost their prior class system. With the shuffling of government came the shuffling of people, and therefore, the previous social hierarchy now became a blended culture of modern France.57

At the start of the third republic the artistic response was overwhelming. First came Degas’ Palace de la Concorde, which was out of character for Degas. He rarely painted streetscapes, but he made an exception for this piece. The piece contains Viscount Lepic and his daughters, but that’s not what's  interesting. It is the scene. At that point in time, artists were attempting to illustrate political messages in their  work, often in a subtle way through minor detailing.58

Dombrowski explains that by using Palace de Concorde as a location Degas is able to unload layers of French history. In this work, Degas overlaps Lepic's top hat with the statue Strasbourg. While most would assume this was done out of displacement, it served a purpose with the current state of the third republic. This was meant to show the instability of France at the time. Degas's paintings, therefore, become as Dombrowski says, “an analysis of both  the representation of politics and the  politics of representation.”59

57 Boime, Art and the French Commune, 84 

58 Forgione, “Everyday Life in Motion” 673 

59 Dombrowski, “History, Memory and Instantinaity” , 198

Dombrowski further explains that Palace de la Concorde was painted during the brief stint of Bonapartism. Lepic was a Bonapartist, further proving Degas' point that the current government  in France was failing. Lepic was an influential figure in Parisian society, and he believed the government at the time was failing and needed to be handed back to the Bonaparte’s who knew what to do with the government. Furthermore, the passing of a hat covering up a statue which represents durability and  patriotism constitutes a loss. If Degas intended to paint daily life, he could have done it anywhere. Painting this specific scene bare of the masses focuses our attention on the brief interaction of the  hat and the statue, as a Bonapartist Lepic was on the wrong side of France's  political future. Dombrowski explains,  “here is Lepic, the Bonapartist, now clearly replacing the Strausberg; here is an invisible monument behind his hat with an unknown present and future; here is a new and fleeting moment of an  utterly different and modern anti monumentality” 60

Degas's political commentary is  clear in Palace de la Concorde: nationalism. He does not do so by  worshiping monumentality, but in a  simple manner: where urban life meets a  political form. The mere chance that a hat  overlaps a monument serves to show that  nothing in life can happen by  fragmentation. However, in a painting  where time can be frozen, it can deliver a  message of what the future can look like,  otherwise known as an impression.  Impressionism and its use of lights and  shadows manipulate the scenery of life to

60 Dombrowski, “History, Memory and Instantinaity” , 216

show the truth, politically and socially.61 Without the use of lights and shadows the manipulation of the scene using Lepic’s hat would look premeditated and unnatural. Instead by using the impressionist techniques, he is able to demonstrate an impressionist concept and political connotation through the  impressionist technique.

Furthermore, in 1876, Degas  painted L’absinthe which depicts “people painted as people” in their daily routines and usual activities. In L’absinthe, A couple sitting at a table in the ‘Café of the  New Athens’ later identified as Ellen Andree and Marcellin Desboutin. In front of Ellen sits a glass of absinthe but  she seems bored with it, not yet addicted. In the late 1880s absinthe became an epidemic as people were becoming slaves 

Figure 7 Edgas Degas, L'Absinthe, 1875-76, Oil on canvas, 36.2 in × 26.8 in

(92 cm × 68 cm), Musée d'Orsay, Paris

61 Dombrowski,“History, Memory and Instantinaity,  216 

62 Marnin Young, "Heroic Indolence: Realisim and the Polotics of Time in Rafaëlli's "Absinthe Drinkers",

to the liquid, giving the euphoric feeling of floating into dreamlike states and madness. With the bans on cafes and  limits on alcohol consumption from the years prior, the people of France drank what they could get their hands on which at that point became absinthe for the lower class.62

Absinthe was less popular during 1869-1872 but following the commune and the establishment of the third  republic, it regained its popularity once  again. 90% of the aperitif market  consisted of absinthe and therefore, alcohol consumption rates increased dramatically. and alcohol consumption rates increased dramatically. Wine on the other hand was reserved for the higher classes that could afford it. Since absinthe was readily available and cost effective, it became the mass's drink of  choice as it was cost-effective.63 Aside from the message Degas was trying to spread about alcoholism at that  time, the way the painting is framed also  shows an interesting point. Degas framed  the image with the couple at the  backfilling, with the majority of the canvas filled with a zigzag of tables. This setting reinforces the loneliness of the couple. The brooding couple that barely speaks to each other shows that life post commune was not easy. Most could not support their pre-war lifestyles. With life being so different and many people fell down the class system now labeled declasses, alcohol seemed like a good  escape from what their lives had become.64

By painting such a dismal scene  Degas shows the reality of life, which is probably why the work was rejected by

(The Art Bulletin (CAA) 90 (2): 235-259, 2008) 250 

63 Young, "Heroic Indolence”, 249 

64 Young, "Heroic Indolence”, 251

the salon. By painting something so realistic and out of character for Degas, he showed his viewer what their lives  looked like from the outside. His subjects  had not fallen victim to the absinthe yet; there was still hope for them to turn their lives around. Toward the end of the 1870s and early 1880s that is what much of the public realized, of course, many fell victim to alcohol, but others began to  embrace this new life where the lines of social class seemed blurred.65 

Gustave Caillebotte was one of the  later impressionist painters but was  crucial to the movement. His works  mostly contain the assimilation of the

Figure 8 Gustave Caillebotte, Paris Street; Rainy Day, 1877, Oil  on canvas, 83.5 in × 108.7 in

(212.2 cm × 276.2 cm), Art  Institute of Chicago, Charles H. and Mary F. S. Worcester Collection,

Chicago

current rhetoric of France. He was also the wealthiest of the impressionist artists and to help support the movement he  frequently purchased his fellow artist’s works to help them make a living during  such hard times.66 His early work was characterized as a naturalist taking themes from urban life. He later leaned into the theme of painting people in daily life, navigating their new lives. 

65 Young, "Heroic Indolence”, 250 

66 Boime, Art and the French Commune, 77 

67 Jones, The Cambridge Illustrated History, 214

Most notable was his work Paris Street; Rainy Day painted in 1877. The scene is framed such that the viewer  feels part of the frame; as if the viewer is  on the concrete as the couple approaches them. The scene shows the starburst pattern of the Haussman-style streets with the focus on the couple  walking toward the viewer. 67 The foreground contains many others, symbolic of each person bringing their individual self into the city's larger social  network. What's notable is the isolation that each person experiences in the scene. One might chalk it up to rain hindering spontaneous conversation between people on the concrete but, there's more to it. 68

To further examine this theory we look to the impressionist exhibit in 1877 where there was no commentary on the separation or isolation between people, therefore that maybe this was normal.69 Instead, the commentary was focused on the scenery, the paving stones, and the  impression Haussmann left on Paris. Caillebotte’s isolation of his characters gives a glimpse into what life was like

Figure 9 Gustave Caillebotte,Le Pont de l'Europe, 1876, Oil  on canvas, 49 in × 71 in (125 cm ×

181 cm), Musée du Petit  Palais, Geneva, Switzerland

68 Herbert, Impressionism, 22-23 

69 Boime, Art and the French Commune, 82-84

during the time. Caillebotte was focused on depicting the daily rhythm of people, catching them inside their element. 70

His theme of isolation of his figures continues into his work Le Pont De L’Europe, which a bourgeois couple walks toward the viewer while a working class boy leans against the steel of the bridge admiring the trellises.71 Forgione, the author of Everyday life in motion, notes that the separation here is more  distinctive than Caillebotte’s other work, and for good reason. Following the commune and Franco-Prussian war, the people of France were looking for their place in a new world with the class  system destroyed.

This left most of the population unsure of what their new class status meant. Without the old social classes, people had to become accustomed to the new societal norms. The isolation depicted in Paris Street; Rainy Day through characters indicates that everyone kept their distance in a precautionary manner.72 The people did not know who was approaching them as  it was a rainy day. The umbrellas that  everyone was holding assisted to keep the distance in case the person walking opposite was from the wrong sort. 73

In Le Pont De L’europe the isolation is more intentional as the imagery it is placed alongside assists the  theme. The working boy leans against the  rail, a theme many artists used to demonstrate either working class or industrial work. On the other hand, the couple walks farthest away from the steel to demonstrate their status and freedom.74

70 House, Impressionism, 117 

71 Forgione, “Everyday Life in Motion” 673 

72 John Milner, The Studios of Paris; The Capital of  Art in the Late 19th Century, (New Haven and  London: Yale University, 1988) 164 

73 House, Impressionism, 117 

74 Herbert, Impressionism, 22

The painting set on the bridge focuses on the new and advanced France versus the prior painting set in Haussmann's  Paris. This further proves that Caillebotte’s imagery of modern scenery and the new class divisions displayed the new pattern of life in France. 75

Caillebotte, as the youngest impressionist painter, was undervalued at the time; unlike the others, his work  was intricate and incorporated detail. His attention to detail was where he hid his messages. Cailebotte intended to show the social class system of the new Paris; the people excited about their new status unwilling to mess it up. Whether that meant avoiding bumping into the wrong kind of people or staying far away from the working class to enforce their status. The bourgeoisie were willing to  do whatever it took to maintain status in this new world. 76

The theme of the new social class became especially prominent in artwork as Marxism and anarchy were on the rise during the 80s and 90s, leaving the people who just gained their status worried that they would lose it as fast as they got it.77 Marx’s communist views of  equality accompanied by revolutionary thoughts on anarchy were common for this time period of new government. Cailebottes' depiction of social classes following the commune and war gives the viewer an insider view of what life was like. The clear separation between people later leads to a call for equality both, between different classes and men and women.78 Albeit upholding the pre-war bourgeoisie culture would not work in a

75 Dombrowski, “History, Memory and Instantinaity”  , 199 

76 House, Impressionism, 119 

77 Young, "Heroic Indolence”, 251 

78 John Hutton, "Camile Pissarro's Turpitudes Sociales and Late Nineteenth-Centruy French Anarchist AntiFeminism" (Oxford Journals (Oxford

modern society, the people were going  to try.

In addition to this theme of class separation in Caillebotte’s work, it's important to note that following the  commune many artists not only began painting people in their daily lives, but also included women in their definition of ‘people’. Class distinction between men was one thing but to broach the topic of men and women in a hierarchy where men were more significant no longer fit with the start of the new and  modern image of France and Paris. The call for equality was becoming more common toward the close of the 19th century evoking a reform in artistic style.

Previously in art, women were used for models, portraits and biblical scenes but not as a representation of  daily life; they were instead an idealized image. Now, to see women of the upper class walking in the street like any other person for example in Paris Street Rainy Day was uncommon in real life before the commune. Following the commune women in public were slowly becoming normalized if the women pictured were accompanied by a man, they were not independent yet. 79

Paintings with solely women were even riskier for this time as it was not something the people were used to seeing; it showed a pro-feminist ideal that society was not ready for. It was rare to see a scene with only women, it was risqué as we discussed with Olympia. Feminism is defined by the advocacy of  women's rights on the basis of equality in

University Press)History Workshop (24): 32-61, 1987) ,38-39 

79 Forgione, “Everyday Life in Motion” 674-675 

80 Katherine B Clinton, “Femme et Philosophe:  Enlightenment Origins of Feminism”, (The Johns  Hopkins University Press) (8): (283-299) (1975) (284)

sex, which was a common theme following the French revolution and especially following the Franco-Prussian war.80 Manet as discussed previously was a man of risk and if any artist were going to breach this area it would be him. In Manet's work Un Bar Aux Folies  Bergère' he illustrates a barmaid with a man approaching her. We can see the man's reflection in the mirror behind her but not in the front as the perspective makes it seem like each individual viewer is the man opposite the barmaid.81

The barmaid works in the Foiles  Bergère which started as a shopping center but was later converted into a social space. The barmaid herself holds almost a smirk while she sizes up her opponent, but she still seems detached from reality. This is due to the fact that she is unhappy in her position. She is in  such close proximity to the communal pleasures but is still unable to enjoy

Figure 10 Édouard Manet, A Bar at the Folies-Bergère, 1882, Oil on canvas, 37.8 in × 51.2 in

(96 cm × 130 cm),  Courtauld Gallery, London

81 Albert Boime, "Manet's "Un Bar Aux Folies Bergere" as an Allegory of Nostalgia", ( Zeitschrift Für (Kunstgeschichte (Deutscher Kunstverlag GmbH  Munchen Berlin) (56): 234-248, 1993) 239

them. In addition to that, her thinking expression could be interpreted as the barmaid wishing to open her own establishment and not work in one owned by a man.82

The barmaid's gaze is what could be characterized as the most important of the entire work. The barmaid looks out directly at the viewer similar to Olympia. As previously discussed, Olympia  possessed all the power in her position, and now the barmaid strives to have the same. Females at that time were not allowed access to many establishments and were, as noted by Boime, “denied equal access to social spaces''83. In addition to that, female workers needed to be beautiful to give the illusion of a dream to customers of being able to see and not touch. Similar to the previous artwork women served as an idealized  image men were able to view. Here, the barmaid is the bar’s showpiece that the  men cannot touch; hopefully getting the  men to spend more at the owner’s bar.84

Throughout the social and political changes during the impressionist movement, it can be concluded that Paris following the commune was still antifeminist in nature.85 Women were unable to possess  confidence like Olympia in the real world, but that depiction, allowed the barmaid to maintain her steady presence. She controls that conversation and interaction with the customer; she may not be able to interact with males freely in public spheres but here she can control some aspects of the conversation. She steals parts of Olympia’s strength to show

82 Boime, Manet's "Un Bar Aux Folies-Bergere”, 241 

83 Boime, Manet's "Un Bar Aux Folies-Bergere”, 246 

84 Boime, Manet's "Un Bar Aux Folies-Bergere”, 247 

85 Hutton, "Camile Pissarro's Turpitudes Sociales”, 38 

86 Boime, Manet's "Un Bar Aux Folies-Bergere”, 241

she can stand her ground even if not in  public. 86

Now to speak of the man, Manet frames the image without the man in the mirror in the viewer's immediate eyesight. Since the image makes it as if the viewer is in the position of the man the actual man is only visible in the mirror beyond the barmaid. The man in the mirror “represents a floating  fragment of angst rather than a tangible manifestation of male prerogative” as stated by Boime.87 This means that  because the man is in the foreground, it gives light to the current situation of women in public spheres. To keep women hidden is now a mere figment. Without the man in the picture the  woman is viewed as independent and confident. The male view of women which used to matter now in new France was not as important. 88

Degas' scene exposes the concept of feminism in the late 19th century, something that was unheard of before the commune and war, and now was a theme on the rise. Due to the rise in Marxism, socialism, and anarchy, equality as a  concept was on the rise with not just the  women but also the class system.89 In response to the movements encouraging the call for equality artist Camille Pissarro created Turpitudes as a representation of the injustice in their current society. Originally his work was  private and meant for his nieces, but later was published to expose how life was during this time and what needed to change. The gruesome images he depicted showed how much more France could do in terms of improvement.90

87 Boime, Manet's "Un Bar Aux Folies-Bergere”, 248 

88 Boime, Manet's "Un Bar Aux Folies-Bergere”, 248 

89 Hutton,"Camile Pissarro's Turpitudes Sociales”, 38 

90 Hutton, "Camile Pissarro's Turpitudes Sociales”, 34

Following the depression from the commune and war, life needed to change. The change to social and political spheres of life, although extreme, was necessary for the new and modern times. With  continued workers' strikes vying for equal workers' rights and women slowly entering the social and historical scene, life was changing for the better.91 The  people of Paris realized that with all the  advances in their government and the changes in life itself, they could change something too.

Though the 19th-century change in government was somewhat of a constant, the people knew not to get too comfortable with their lifestyles as they generally changed on a dime. During these times of transition, change, and advancement people still needed a way to express themselves. Therefore, artists of  the 19th century provided a creative means of expression of daily life. By painting scenes that lead to political and  social conversations, these artists were accomplishing their goals. 92 Art was meant to be discussed, debated, and appreciated during this time and later in the future. The impressionist movement was the first of its kind. The movement allowed, art to feel tangible and real, unlike the overly  idealized neoclassicism and Renaissance eras. Placing the viewer inside a controversial or realistic scene allowed its viewer to look at their own lives from a different perspective.

During the 19th century, artists served as the newsman of the time. Their works provided political, historical, and social messages meant for the people to motivate their agendas for change. By painting people as real people not idealized figures art became candid, which further allowed people to imagine  themselves as these figures. Women placed themselves in the shoes of the barmaid and addicts  realizing they are the woman in l ‘absinthe. This showed the reality of the time.

The historical and social commentary provided by artists of the impressionist movements allows a viewer, during the impressionist movement or even today, the ability to live the life of the 19th century. By painting life as it truly was artists weren't trying to idealize society, instead, they brought to light these issues would be addressed.

91 Young, "Heroic Indolence”, 254 92 Boime, Art in the Age of Civil Struggle, 738

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